Turkish Foreign Policy
INTRODUCTION
The Turkish Republic was established in 1923, following the demise of the Ottoman Empire. The Empire had been in a state of decline for several centuries. Inability to keep up with industrial and scientific developments, social and political unrest and wars had sapped its strength. The First World War, in which the Ottoman Empire took part on the losing side, signaled its end. As the Empire crumbled, its Turkish nucleus rose up in a War of Liberation against the invading powers and the Sultan's government. It was successful and resulted in the Lausanne Peace Treaty of 24 July 1923, which established the international status and boundaries of the new state. The Republic was declared on 29 October 1923. The Treaty provided the basis for the creation of the climate of peace and stability needed by the country. On the other hand, the success of Turkey set an example to many nations struggling for independence in Asia and Africa. Turkey immediately embarked on a course of modernization and reform in all walks of life. Despite the fact that the liberation struggle had been waged against major European powers, she proceeded to establish good relations and cooperation with the West, and based her political and legal systems on modern, secular models. The goal, as expressed by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the leader of the nationalist movement and first President of the Republic, was "to reach the level of contemporary civilization". And to achieve this aim, a doctrine for foreign relations was formulated that has held true to this day; in the words of Atatürk, "Peace at home, Peace in the world."
This has not been an easy task given the history and geographical location of Turkey. She lies at a strategic "crossroads" where two continents, Europe and Asia meet, and also where cultures and civilizations come together. This unique position gives her European, Balkan, Mediterranean, Middle Eastern, Caucasian and Asian identities all at the same time. It has exerted a strong influence on her foreign policy choices and has necessitated a multidimensional foreign policy. In this context, the primary objectives of Turkish foreign policy are to establish and to develop friendly relations with all countries, in particular with neighboring ones; to promote and to take part in regional and international cooperation; to resolve disputes through peaceful means and to contribute to regional peace, stability, security and prosperity.
BEFORE THE SECOND WORLD WAR
In the post-Lausanne era, the focus of the new Republic was on internal structuring. Externally, efforts were directed at resolving the problems left over from the Lausanne negotiations, including the Ottoman debt and border issues. Relations with neighboring countries were marked by a cooperative spirit and mutual understanding. In the mid-1930s, as the international environment was rapidly deteriorating. Turkey endeavored to form a security belt on its western and eastern borders. She played a leading role in the establishment of the Balkan Entente (Turkey, Greece, Romania, Yugoslavia) in 1934, and the Saadabad Pact (Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan) in 1937. The Montreux Convention, reinstating her sovereignty over the strategic Turkish Straits, and regulating navigation through them, was signed in 1936.
Abiding by the principles of the Republic born merely 16 years before the start of World War II, Turkey remained a non-belligerent ally of the anti-Nazi coalition until the concluding months of the conflict, at which time she joined the war.
AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR
Turkey became a founding member of the United Nations in 1945 and joined the Council of Europe in 1949. As a result of the growing threats to security in Europe, she joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1952. In 1963, Turkey became an Associate Member of the European Economic Community, the forerunner of the European Union. In the period of détente in Europe, Turkey was able to give more emphasis to developing her relations with Eastern European countries and the Soviet Union, her northern neighbor.
THE POST-COLD WAR ERA
The dramatic changes that occurred in Europe in the late 1980's and early 1990's, that is the collapse of totalitarian regimes, the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact, the disintegration of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the emergence of new independent states, the reunification of Germany, and the spread of pluralist democracy and free market economies, brought the East-West rivalry and the bipolar system to an end. At the same time, there appeared new threats to security, such as ethnic nationalism, xenophobia, irredentism, religious fundamentalism and international terrorism, causing regional instability and conflicts, and casting a shadow over the initial optimism.
In the post-Cold War period, Turkey found herself at the center of a large landscape, Eurasia, stretching from Europe to Central Asia. This area is destined to gain increasing geopolitical significance in the new millennium. Turkey, with her experience in democracy and economic development, and making use of the multiple ties with most of the countries in the area, has been able to take part in their transformation efforts. In this regard, she has spearheaded the formation of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation Organization, which can be seen as the first successful attempt to capitalize in the post-Cold War spirit. Turkey has also played a leading role in the formation of a Naval Task Force for the Black Sea that will respond to emergencies and environmental disasters. On the other hand, another regional body, the Economic Cooperation Organization, originally consisting of Turkey, Iran and Pakistan, has increased its membership and plays a significant role in its field. In the post-Cold War era, international peacekeeping has gained new significance and Turkey has participated in many peacekeeping and peace enforcement operations, such as those in Somalia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Albania, Kosovo and Georgia.
THE BALKANS
The Balkans, in which Turkey herself is situated, has played a significant role in European and World history. Important ties exist between the peoples of Turkey and other Balkan countries. This strategically sensitive region, constituting a gateway between Europe and Asia, is fertile ground for the kinds of conflicts that have characterized the political and security environment of the post-Cold War era. Turkey has traditionally aspired for conciliation, stability and peace in the Balkans, as her role in the setting up of the Balkan Entente in 1936 showed. She attaches importance to the forging of closer ties among Balkan countries and to the creation of a durable atmosphere of understanding and peaceful cohabitation. In this respect Turkey has launched major initiatives such as the Southeastern European Cooperation Process and the Multinational Peacekeeping Force for Southeastern Europe. She is supporting the Stability Pact proposed by the European Union. Turkey has done her utmost to contribute to the settlement of the Bosnian and Kosovo conflicts. She participated in NATO operations, and is involved in UN peace efforts, and reconstruction work, in the area.
SOUTHERN CAUCASUS
Similarly, Turkey regards peace, stability and cooperation in the neighboring Caucasus as vitally important. She is exerting every effort to contribute to the peaceful resolution of the conflicts, as well as to the overall reduction of tensions in the area. She has proposed the establishment of a Stability Pact encompassing all the regional countries. In this regard, the Armenian occupation of parts of Azerbaijan is a source of particular concern. Turkey supports the negotiations under the auspices of the OSCE/Minsk Group, as well as the bilateral talks between Azerbaijan and Armenia. On the other hand, she fully supports its third Caucasian neighbor Georgia, which is making significant progress in the political and economic fields. Turkey believes that the peaceful resolution of the conflicts in the Caucus will result in political stability and economic well-being for all, and will open up new prospects for regional cooperation.
Attaching the label of "genocide" to the measures taken by the Ottoman government during World War I to a segment of the Armenian population of the Empire, which took up arms in support of the invading Russian armies, is erroneous and misleading. This allegation is politically motivated, and consists of a misrepresentation of historical facts. In reality the Ottoman government undertook a necessary but, under conditions of war, extreme climate, disease and shortages, difficult task to relocate the Armenian population. After World War I, official investigations and trials of individuals failed to corroborate the claim of a "genocide". However, decades later this allegation was used to justify a spate of terrorism by Armenians against innocent people. This allegation is still used in a way that renders difficult the normalization of Armenia's external relations, as well as a balanced approach to the issue.
CENTRAL ASIA
On the basis of her close cultural ties and affinities with Central Asian countries, Turkey attaches high priority to the development of her relations with the region. She was the first country to recognize the independence of these new states and she immediately offered to share with them her experience in democracy and free market economy. The challenge here is to further consolidate the political and economic gains of these countries. The mobilization of their rich natural and human resources requires international cooperation and investment. Turkey is a capital exporting country in the region. The total value of credits extended by Turkey to the five Central Asian republics is above 1.5 billion US Dollars. More than 7 billion US Dollars worth of projects have been undertaken by over 200 major Turkish companies. Moreover, Turkey's technical and educational assistance to the region includes more than 10.000 scholarships and training opportunities for university students and public officials.
ENERGY RESOURCES
Turkey is near to 70% of the world's proven energy resources, in particular to those in the Middle East and the Caspian Sea basin. With regard to the transportation of the oil and gas reserves of the Caspian Sea area, the route across eastern Turkey, connecting the energy fields to the Mediterranean, offers the most direct, cost-effective, technologically and environmentally feasible and safe option. On the other hand, the transportation of this large volume of oil by tanker through the narrow and congested Turkish Straits is not a sustainable option. The "Turkish Caspian-Mediterranean Crude Oil Pipeline Project" was developed as the main export route for the transfer of Kazakh and Azeri oil. Realization of this project will not only make an impact on the economic development of the exporting countries, but by creating interdependence among the suppliers, investors and transit countries, will contribute to the strengthening of peace, stability and prosperity in the region as a whole. Also, an agreement was signed in 2001 for a pipeline to carry Azeri natural gas to Turkey and possibly further West. It is expected to come into service in 2004 and is an important step in the development of regional energy resources.
RUSSIAN FEDERATION
Russia, whose relations with Turkey date back centuries, has always been an important neighbor. The break-up of the Soviet Union and the emergence of the Russian Federation marked a new phase in Turkish-Russian relations. Both countries share the aim of working towards the enhancement of peace, stability and economic well being in the region. Currently, good neighborliness, mutual trust, friendship and cooperation form the basis of Turkish-Russian relations, which Turkey seeks to further develop to serve the mutual interests of both countries. Tangible results of their cooperation can be seen in the energy and economic fields.
THE MIDDLE EAST
The Middle East, also a land of richness and promise, has experienced turmoil and conflict for a long time. Peace and stability have been elusive goals of the Peace Process. Turkey has supported the Peace Process from the beginning as the best method by which a solution to the crisis may be found. And her historical and current relations with the countries of the Middle East place her at an advantageous position with respect to contributing to peace efforts. The achievement of lasting peace will bring the goal of regional stability and prosperity much closer. It should also be underlined that sustainable peace and stability in the region cannot be achieved until Iraq is reintegrated fully with the international community. Turkey is making every effort to assist in its neighbor's reconciliation and reintegration process.
THE UNITED STATES
Turkish-United States relations are based on longstanding friendship. During the Cold War years, the security aspect of this relationship became more pronounced, particularly following the Truman Doctrine and NATO membership of Turkey. In the post-Cold War environment, Turkey and the US elevated their cooperation to the level of "strategic partnership", as bilateral cooperation continued to prosper and diversify. In this context, Turkey and the United States have worked together for the elimination of conflicts and causes of instability particularly in the Middle East, Balkans and Southern Caucasus. They are cooperating with regard to emerging opportunities in Central Asia. A case in point is cooperation in the development of the Aktau-Baku-Ceyhan pipeline project.
THE EUROPEAN UNION
Turkey has shown a close interest in Europe's integration process from the very beginning and full membership to the European Union has been a primary objective of Turkish foreign policy. In 1963 she became an Associate Member of the European Economic Community, the forerunner of the European Union, through an Agreement of Association, which envisaged full membership over a period of time. The Customs Union between Turkey and the EU, which became effective on January 1, 1996, was a significant milestone in Turkey's relations with the EU. The Helsinki Summit of the European Union, held on 10-11 December 1999, yielded another breakthrough in Turkish-EU relations as Turkey was recognized as a candidate country. It is only natural for Turkey, historically, politically and economically attached to Europe, and member of all relevant European organizations, on the one hand and the European Union on the other, to work together towards completing the accession process as soon as possible.
CYPRUS
A partnership state between Turkish and Greek Cypriots was set up in 1960 according to agreements signed by the Turkish Cypriot and Greek Cypriot leaders and the Turkish, Greek and British governments. However, in 1963, only three years later, the Turkish Cypriots were ousted by force from all organs of the new Republic by the Greek Cypriots, in contravention of the founding agreements and the constitution. The claim put forth thereafter by Greek Cypriots to represent the "Republic of Cyprus" has been illegal, and has not been recognized by Turkey. The 1974 attempt by Greece to overrun Turkish Cypriots and to annex the island was resisted by Turkey in accordance with the 1960 Treaty of Guarantee. Consequently, Turkish Cypriots set up their own Republic, while continuing the search for reconciliation. The decision of the EU to start negotiations with the Greek Cypriot Administration for the accession of "Cyprus", without the consent of Turkish Cypriots, and in disregard of the negotiations under the auspices of the United Nation's Secretary General further complicated the situation. This has rendered the settlement process more difficult. Turkey is committed to finding a negotiated solution to the problem. She is of the opinion that efforts in this direction have the best chance of success if they are built on the realities in Cyprus. In this regard, the starting point for properly addressing the Cyprus issue is the recognition of the existence of two equal and sovereign parties in Cyprus. Working on this basis, the two sides can resolve issues of mutual concern and create a stable environment for a new partnership. Therefore, Turkey supports the proposal of Rauf Denktaş, President of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, on the establishment of the "Cyprus Confederation" according to the aforementioned principles. The proposal preserves the unity of the island with its confederal structure and presents a historic opportunity for a just and lasting settlement. It also provides for the accession of the whole of Cyprus to the EU.
GREECE
After 1923, a period of friendship and cooperation existed between Turkey and Greece, in contrast to the hostilities that took place before. The balance which the Lausanne Peace Treaty established between the two neighbors played an important role in fostering good relations. However, a campaign by Greece for the annexation of Cyprus in the 1950s started a period of tension in the relations of the two countries that are also NATO allies. The situation was aggravated by the 1974 coup attempt of Greece in Cyprus, the subsequent Turkish intervention, and the Greek efforts to alter the status quo in the Aegean Sea, at Turkey's expense. Recently, the start of a constructive dialogue between Turkey and Greece has led to the signing of several agreements on areas of cooperation. It may be possible for the relative improvement in diverse bilateral relations to continue in the coming days, allowing for the gradual tackling of all issues, and resulting in a climate of cooperation beneficial to the two countries as well as to the region as a whole.
TERRORISM
Terrorism, carried out individually or collectively, poses one of the greatest threats to human rights and stability. In the same vein, it is a threat to international peace and security. Terrorism violates fundamental human rights, particularly the right to live, and can have no justification under any circumstances. It is an evil that strikes at the very core of democracy, civil society and economic and social development. Turkey has felt the effects of terrorism. The campaign of violence and terrorism which targeted Turkey has been curbed to a large degree, mainly as a result of a concerted effort and the perseverance of all segments of the population. The acts of terrorism committed in the United States on 11 September 2001 have demonstrated tragically the extent of the danger posed by terrorism. It is worth mentioning in this regard that to associate terrorism with a particular geography, religion or cause is wrong and harmful. Terrorism is a global peril. Unreserved and complete cooperation among nations is essential in combating terrorism, as it is in overcoming all the other ills of the modern age.
AFGHANISTAN
Today the international community faces a twofold challenge in Afghanistan: to combat the terrorist network which has established itself in that territory; and to support the revival of Afghanistan by ensuring peace, stability and economic development. Turkey is firmly committed to the efforts underway and planned, including those within the context of the United Nations, to meet the challenge. In fact, the history of Turkey's cooperation with Afghanistan goes back to the earliest years of the Turkish Republic, when economic, social and administrative training programs for Afghans were initiated. These ties continued over time, and could enable Turkey to play a constructive role in the effort to help Afghanistan overcome the current crisis.
NEW HORIZONS OF TURKISH FOREIGN POLICY
We are at the dawn of a new century. The closing days of the twentieth century witnessed momentous changes in the form and substance of relations between nations. The old system is giving way to a new order. Globalization is the catchword. Significantly, the security perception of the last fifty years has also been replaced, and in some respects, is in the process of being replaced, by new perceptions and considerations. It is a cliché of our times that, along with new threats to security, and concerns over pressing social, economic, and environmental issues, the new order is full of promises for increased cooperation and interaction among nations. This places a historic and moral responsibility on governments and societies to overcome the difficulties in their relations, and to seize the opportunities of the twenty first century. It is this widening and inspiring perspective that Turkish foreign policy is determined to adapt to.